International Marketing

International Marketing – Exploring New Products and New Markets

Any company which aspires to expand into new overseas markets faces a significant challenge in selecting the appropriate international marketing strategy to do so. An organisations strategic and managerial depth is severely tested. The challenge lies in understanding the new market, and designing and fabricating a suitable marketing mix for the dynamics of the market.

The challenge lies in being able to analyze the market for existing players, market size, and future of the industry. Expanding into a new country takes significant investment from the company in terms of organizing logistics, administration and controls, storage facilities, promotions and management costs. Hence, the right strategy to enter and exploit the market could mean a significant financial implication for the organization in the medium and long term.

Vic’s Premium Quality Meat is a family business established in a small way which has grown into a global business. Meat business in Australia was saturated, with little differentiation in products, which is when Vic’s decided to differentiate the product to create a price premium in the market. The company has to expand into overseas markets to be able to survive in the meat business. The company has decided to expand into China with its premium meat products because of China’s potential of huge demand. The market for Australian meat in China has grown by over 1500% from the mid-1990s (Bernoth, 2007). Hence, succeeding in this market is going to be very important to the company.

Perhaps the most important part of the international marketing strategy in entering a new market with a new product is the function of the marketer and the role he plays in making the venture a success. Product knowledge and a socio-cultural and economic awareness are necessary for marketing to succeed.

Organizational Strategies and Bearing on International Marketing Strategy

Porter categorized strategies into cost leadership, differentiation and focus (Porter, 1980). While the first two are generic strategies, focus is an increased attention on the business if either strategy is adopted (Dess & Davis, 1982), and hence a necessary strategic recourse in this case. Hence, between the generic strategies of cost differentiation and differentiation, a company’s entry strategy can be understood as four distinct positions taken by the company in the market (White, 1986). See Appendix 1. These four positions are as follows:

Pure Cost Position

This is a strategic position where cost differences between competitors are low, and there is little or no differentiation between products available in the market. Vic’s entered the market when the market was positioned like this, and successfully created a market for a product line which was priced higher. Hence, this international marketing strategy could mean that the company has to regress on its corporate strategy. Also, a low cost position is not viable in a market like China, which has the lowest cost structures for production anywhere in the world. Hence, Vic’s cannot use this strategy to enter China.

Pure Differentiation Position

This is a strategic position where product differentiation is high, because of which the implications of costing is low. This strategy is suitable for companies which target a niche segment of the market and hence aim to be highly profitable, at the same time be assured of business. This is the strategy Australian meat importers in China are following at present. This could be a suitable international marketing strategy for entering the market for Vic’s, as the primary strength of the company is the superiority of its products compared to local produce. Its assured customers are expats and the affluent and middle class Chinese who want safe and exclusive meat for consumption.

Differentiation and Cost Leadership Position

This is a strategic position in which the company is unique in its offerings and also prices competitively. This is suitable strategy for companies who find that the products and services they offer are unique, but the local and other substitutes that are available could compete with them. This strategy could be suitable for Vic’s in China because of the fact that there are several Australian companies who are into the meat importing business already and there is the threat of local produce which is much cheaper than imported meat.

No Competitive Advantage Position

This is an international marketing situation which is similar to a commodity market, where there are several products in the market and they are all equal in price, quality and uniqueness (Zahra et al, 2000). This situation does not apply to Vic’s business or its entry into China

The Apt Strategy

Out of the four strategic alternatives discussed above, Pure Differentiation and a combination Cost and Differentiation strategies could be the most suitable for Vic’s. Let us now explore these two strategies to find the most suitable. In both these strategies differentiation is common. Vic’s has to differentiate its products from the local produce and the existing Australian meat producers and importers to gain competitive advantage.

Vic’s has to gain cost leadership in the market with respect to the other Australian meat companies because it does not have the first mover advantage in this market. Hence, to gain competitive advantage Vic’s must be innovative and careful with its pricing strategy during the entry stage.

Vic’s has to adopt a combination of cost leadership and differentiation strategy to enter the Chinese meat market.

Coming to focus, the company needs to focus on gaining market knowledge in China, the dynamics, regulatory and the competitive forces. China has an embargo on meat imports from America, and this is aiding Australian companies in China (Australian Trade Commission, 2010). This situation could change in the future, and Vic’s has to be prepared for increased competition from other countries. Australian players in China are primarily focused on the metropolitan cities, and the new focus areas could be tier II cities, which are growing at a massive rate. This will take some serious understanding of the logistics and supply chain operations within China.

A company with a pure cost leadership position has relatively simple management bandwidth required in marketing and other functions. Its production and sales are synchronized. It produces goods at the cheapest cost and marketers sell them for as low as they can afford to. This requires a very simple management structure, low autonomy and frequent low complexity of reporting (Porter, 1980).

However, when a company goes in for product differentiation strategy, the coordination required between the various departments is high (Porter, 1980). The company has to have a senior management team to be functioning in China, as the business complexity is high. This entails a higher cost outlay for the expansion project and suitable individuals to be available for recruitment at a very senior level. Organizing its command structure and organizing its operations is the next significant complexity for Vic’s expansion into the Chinese market via a robust international marketing strategy.

The implication of the entry strategy for the country is the most critical position to take from the marketing perspective. If the pricing is too high or if the segment catered is too small, the venture could be a disaster. If the pricing is too low and if the segment cannot be defined properly, resulting in a sell to everyone situation, the company cannot survive in the long run. Thus, planning for market entry in an international expansion scenario (international marketing) is a challenging and engaging process for any organization. Vic’s has chosen to have a strategy to market its products based on its product differentiation and cost leadership or competitiveness and these are two factors which need careful balancing, as these are two opposing approaches to pricing and product development.

The Product Portfolio

Vic’s is a meat wholesaler, supplying to restaurants, butchers and customers, based out of Australia. Australian meat is known for its purity and this is a major leveraging factor for meat exports. Meat, beef, lamb and pork are the largest export products from Australia, with more than 60% of the meat produced being exported and Australia being the second largest exporter of beef, after Brazil (Australian Trade Commission, 2010). China has a meat embargo from the USA and this is a major factor for driving focus of Australian meat industry towards China, which, owing to its size is a large meat consuming nation (Ausmeat, 2010).

Vic’s deals with primal cuts in beef, lamb, pork, poultry, game and exotic meat and more processed food like handmade sausages. The products are procured from farms and butchered at Vic’s state of the art processing plants and dispatched to their ultimate destinations. These products are exported as sealed, vacuum packed containers and shipped to worldwide destinations, where they are packed and marketed. Beef and lamb are specialized into signature series, with special grass and grain fed meat being sold at a high premium because of the assured quality and meat tenderness. Such meat is sold as specialized portions, available to customers, primarily butchers, restaurants and supermarkets, who need specialized cuts to attract customers and to reduce their complexity in acquiring butchering licenses and maintaining inventory at the shop level of these special customer preferences.

international marketing dissertation topics
international marketing dissertation topics

Vic’s also procures and markets a number of exotic and game meats, including venison, Spanish Jamon, rabbit, ducks, kangaroo and crocodile. Such exotic meats are preferred by large restaurants who seek differentiation in their offerings with such meat, which are usually signature presentations of their chefs.

The entire product range of Vic’s is assured of hormone free feeding and exclusive breeding conditions and processing with hygiene and health consciousness. Though the meat industry is mature and there are very few new opportunities in the global arena, the ultimate factors which interest consumers in meat products are price, quality, volume and traceability, with the last factor being the latest to be added because of the increasing focus on food safety and knowledge and awareness of the consumer (Australian Trade Commission, 2010).

The competitive advantage of Vic’s is the fact that its products are considered and intended to be of the best quality. The impact of the increase in awareness among consumers is a major factor which accounts for its premium pricing and quality. Due to its status of being an evolved meat consuming nation and due to its cutting edge standards in the meat processing industry, Australian meat has become one of the most preferred choices in quality and premium meat (Ausmeat, 2010). Also, the competitive advantage will lie in serving customers in China, which takes a lot of understanding of power, logistics and supply chain practices.

Vic’s practices the Ausmeat language in all its trading and product marketing and for developing specifications for its products (Vic’s, 2010). This unified language enables meat producers to phrase and specify their products as per industry standards set by Ausmeat, and thus to ensure quality of products delivered to customers (Ausmeat, 2010).

Marketing Strategy – Vic’s China

Vic’s has firmed up its strategy, organizational structure and command structure. Now it has to begin identifying the marketing strategies for itself. Vic’s has to follow a Polycentric Orientation of marketing in the EPRG framework, which places marketing entirely in the hands of the subsidiary (Wind et al, 1973). An organization’s different countries function as different business units with different marketing approaches, depending on its market dynamics.

When an organization is entering a new market, it has to understand the market in its present condition. This understanding is brought about by market segmentation. The market may be segmented in a number of ways, and discussed below are two options.

The demographic segments in the market for meat in China are,

  1. Chinese families who buy local produce at a low cost
  2. Chinese middle class families who can afford costlier meat for its safety
  3. Expats – Aussies and other foreign nationals who may be resident in China
  4. Chinese middle class families in Tier II cities who don’t have access to imported meat

Australia shipped more than 24,000 tons of sheep meat to China in 2009 and 13,000 tons of beef. This makes China the largest consumer of sheep meat and the fourth largest beef consumer in the world. Vic’s has to target to acquire about 5% market share (1850 tons) in these shipments during the first year, doubling its share in the next year (3700 tons). The premium meat demand in China grows at about 15-20% every year (Bernoth, 2007) and consumption of all meat is rising at the rate of 3-5% per annum (Thepigsite, 2007), because of change in consumption practices. The average price of a kilogram of beef is at about $7 in the open market. But this is the price of local produce and premium beef is offered at anywhere between $15-20 depending on the portion and cut (Bernoth, 2007 & Pugh, 2010). Considering an average price of $17 per kg of beef, the estimated revenue size of Vic’s could be at $314 million in the first year, doubling to over $650 million in the second year.

The primary targets for Vic’s are upscale restaurants, hotels, expats from Europe and America and the local middle class which can afford premium meat. The scope for business expansion exists because of the fact that the per capita meat consumption in China is 67 kg per person in 2008, compared to an Australian average of 120 kg per annum. High growth projections discussed above are possible because of the fact that premium quality meat is still new in China, with the main competition coming from local, small time meat enterprises and smuggled meat from North America.

Vic’s China’s Marketing Mix

  1. Product – Vic’s should deliver top quality products in the market in line with its strategy. Its products must reflect the tastes of the customers in China, in terms of the cut, animal and the portions. The products launched by Vic’s must add significant value against the products of its Aussie competitors, in terms of variety, packaging quality and finish.
  2. Price – Vic’s should go in for on par pricing with its Aussie competitors in China, but a premium position to the local produce. It could even enter at marginally lower price than its Aussie players in China, to bring enjoy a cost leadership in the market.
  3. Place – Vic’s must be distributed through super markets, its own retail shops and also through the digital channel – internet and phone ordering. Vic’s meat must be available within reach to any Chinese or expat customer who lives in the geography concerned.
  4. Promotion – Vic’s must promote its products through various media. Expats in China can easily be targeted by social networking sites and online media, while the Chinese segments have to be catered to with the mass media. The plan would be to go in for a grand launch of a retail showroom of Vic’s in Beijing or Shanghai and then building the brand from there, using various other media.

The Target Market

The target market for Vic’s is constituted of consumers and businesses that can afford and realize the value of quality meat. Australian beef importers have been primarily targeting expats and the affluent restaurants of the major cities. This is an attractive segment which is readily available, already being catered to by other importers and brands. But this could also be a segment where there is significant competition and set customer preferences, considering that Vic’s is a late entrant in the market.

There is a large market with Chinese who buy meat from the local grocer or butcher, and considering Vic’s competency in being a wholesaler of meat in Australia, this could be a segment which could provide it the success and the volumes necessary. With increasing demand for quality food products from the affluent middle class (Garnaut, 2010) and with increasing reliance on imports for meeting meat demand, the local market could be the biggest and most lucrative market for Vic’s.

The size of the affluent in China was about 2.9 million and expected to rise to 8.5 million by 2015. Adjusting for purchasing power parity, an income of $60000 per annum in the largest cities of China could be equal to $1, 00,000 to $ 1, 50,000 per annum in the US. The affluent class in China is very young (86% less than 43 years old), highly educated (83% with university degrees) and very busy (23% has less than 10 hours leisure in a week). These figures show the perfect target for a meat brand which understands the customers, is prepared to educate and elevate its customers towards quality food and create a valuable premium market for itself. This could be a very valuable segment, if it can be sold directly to, through various channels of distribution.

Considering that meat consumed per person in about 70 kg per annum in China, this affluent segment is bound to be the leader in consumption, consuming average or above average quantities of meat. The numbers of these affluent is concentrated in the three major cities of China, Beijing, Shanghai and Guangdong (33% in 2007 and estimated to be more than 50% by 2015). This shows a concentrated set of customers who are educated, affluent and shop in supermarkets, are bound to expect high quality of food and general quality of living. Consumption decisions of the affluent class in China are hinged on luxury or social status, environmental consciousness or high quality and convenience (Hedrick-Wong, 2007).

By being present in Shanghai, Beijing and Guangdong, Vic’s could target 33% (1 million households) of the affluent population, with potential consumption of 70 million tons of meat (at the rate of 70kg average consumption per individual per annum) in the first year. This is a sizeable market which is available to Vic’s to exploit and grow. The key will lie in understanding consumer behavior of this class of people, where they buy, why they buy and what they buy. The socio-economic factors, ethnocentricity and culture of the locale are also very important because of the cultural diversity in a large country like China.

Competition

The main competitors for Vic’s in China are local butchers and other Australian meat brands already present in China. While the local butchers could be eventually unviable and become dependent on imported meat, due to lack of support from Government and due to sheer un-suppliable demand (Garnaut, 2010), other Australian meat brands could be the major competitors for Vic’s.

As of 2008, premium meat had touched only about 5% of the market available for such quality meat (Pugh, 2010). This means that Australian have a lot of space to grow and expand within China. But the real competition is going to come from other meat exporting nations, like the US, Brazil and New Zealand. Each of these countries has their own strengths in meat exporting. US beef is banned; aiding other countries, but this is a medium term advantage and could go away. Brazil is a low cost producer of beef, and also the largest exporter of beef and with its low cost production capacity. This makes Brazil a significant competitor for Australian beef. New Zealand is strong in game and exotic meats, with even Aussie companies procuring such meat from the Kiwis.

Another factor in competition that needs to be considered is that China’s meat consumption is composed of 65% pork and 20% poultry (Liu & Deblitz, 2007). This preference could place significant strain on Vic’s which is string in beef. This also presents an opportunity to cater to the top of the pork eating segment with the exotic pork it serves in the form of Spanish Jamon. The changing consumption patterns also mean that beef consumption holds significant opportunity for Vic’s, whose strong point is beef production.

The largest Australian player in mainland China is Elder’s, one of the pioneers in exporting meat to Australia and holds 50% of the market for premium meat exported from Australia. Other meat importers are marginal and small players. Elder’s is a major meat producer in Australia and is right now targeting supermarket chains and internet business to touch retail customers. It has all among been targeting restaurants and expats through ultra-high pricing, to customers who look for Australian meat specifically and for signature dishes in upscale restaurants.

The market position as of 2010 finds the industry for restaurants and expats being stagnant, with meat importers having to set up their own supply chain to cater to the other segments in the market. This creates an attractive opportunity for Vic’s to get its business model right and go for the mass market, which its other Australian competitors are only now beginning to target.

Price

Vic’s, like its Australian competitors has to import meat in containers and process, package and market its finished products in China. This serves two purposes – to cater to the differences in meat consumption preferences in China and also to reduce costs by handling bulk of the processing in China and utilizing its low cost labor and other infrastructure. This will also enable Vic’s to have much leverage in promoting and discounting its product, by having much better control over its cost and hence it’s pricing structure.

The cost of production, transportation and processing and delivering products to customers takes about $10 per kg for Vic’s, to get the product to shelves in supermarkets, as per the study conducted by the management team which designed the market entry vehicle for the company early in the year. This provides a leeway of about $7-10, depending on the product, for Vic’s to leverage on for its profits and its marketing expenses.

In such a scenario, Vic’s can practice simple markup pricing to support a fixed profit for each product unit sold, and utilize a portion of these profits for its marketing budgeting. This method of pricing is suitable because the price is not the deciding criteria and because the competition in the premium meats segment is still low. This allows the few players present in the market to effectively exploit being the pioneers in the industry in China, this must be factored into the international marketing strategy.

Also, the decided marketing strategy of the company is to use a combination of product differentiation and cost leadership in its business. Such a pricing strategy will allow Vic’s to set its expectations of profit at an early stage and then fix its price to accommodate for these strategic positions it intends to take.

Vic’s can fix a markup of 50% approximately on all its products and allocate 10-20% of this to promotions and discounts. This will allow the company to be strategically placed in the supply channel and retail segment and also afford it a healthy to very high profit margin in China. The discounting could be to the retailer and the butcher, as discounting a premium product to the customer could erode the value of the upscale brand in the long run. Thus, the discounts passed on to the channel will enable Vic’s to command a special position within its channel and thus create valuable loyalty from butchers and supermarkets.

Channels of Distribution

Vic’s will enter as a wholesaler of meat, by setting up its cold storage and warehouses in Shanghai. It will start operating through supermarkets and restaurants in its first phase. It will have a sales team of 5 people, under a sales head, who will market the product to supermarkets, retail chains and large butchers. The ordering mechanism will work on a daily basis, considering the perishable nature of the products. The customer will place an order through the phone or through a dedicated internet account with Vic’s and the order will be fulfilled the next day. This mechanism will enable its channel to be fast and responsive to evolving market demands, this must be incorporated into the international marketing strategy.

To enable such a channel, Vic’s has to develop its logistics capability in China. Chinese logistics providers are traditionally single person operated with low costs and standards of operation quality. Since meat transportation is a complex operation and considering the value of the merchandise, Vic’s will set up its own logistics service, which will deliver products based on orders. This is not different from the logistics model it uses in Australia, with its own fleet for servicing orders in the market.

This initial channel setup will require a management team, to handle sales and logistics and also investments in resources like commercial vehicles, software and other management tools. The sales team will be composed of 5 people at the initial stage, to build relationships with major clients, and the proposed compensation for each sales person would be $12000 per annum, considering that the middle class of China earns above $6000, and this salary could bring in experienced sales people from the meat industry in China. They will be supervised by a sales manager, who will be paid approximately $25000. The sales team will be supported by a back end operations team which will be three strong and will cost the company $25000 per annum.

From the second year onwards, Vic’s will start targeting its consumers and butchers, through its own retail outlets and e-commerce. This will enable consumers to directly buy from Vic’s and buy all of Vic’s products under one roof. This will also enable Vic’s to earn higher margins, by cutting down on the discounts or margins it has to afford when selling through the channel. This channel strategy will take better understanding of the market and consumer behavior in China, which is why this plan is deferred to the second year.

Advertising, Sales Promotions and PR Plans

In the first year, when Vic’s is going through the retailer and the trade, it need not go in for mass marketing and advertising. It knows who its customers are and it can directly contact them for generating business. So, during the first year, the business promotion will be focused on PR and sales promotions. After a grand launch of the brand in Shanghai, Vic’s must embark on a PR mission to ensure that all stakeholders and major decision makers in the meat trade in China perceive Vic’s as an important player in the market and a serious competitor and value addition in the market. This could involve participating in trade shows, agriculture meets, food fests, chambers of commerce and prominent business councils and key ingredient in international marketing strategy.

Depolying an international marketing strategy, Vic’s must embark on a sales mission to get Vic’s into as many supermarkets, menus and restaurants as possible, in as many meat shops as possible. This will be possible through aggressive sales promotions, having great discounts for retailers and butchers, who prefer to stock Vic’s in their stores. The focus of the promotion must be in adding value to the customer, in enabling the restaurant to utilize its premium status among its consumers and to enable them to make better margins by selling Vic’s rather than other meat brands.

From the second year, Vic’s has to enter mass international marketing through various media, including television, radio and outdoor advertising. This is necessary because of the fact that the segments catered are larger and more widespread to target through rich media, like a direct sales pitch. The focus of these advertisements has to be the natural taste of Australian meat and beauty of Australia and the heritage of Vic’s. This will create a strong connection with the affluent customers who are being targeted in this channel. Such advertising will also create run offs to the wholesale business also.

The multi-pronged international marketing strategy of promoting the product through attractive trade discounts is a push strategy and advertising and communicating directly with consumers is a pull strategy. When both the push and pull strategies are applied in tandem, the effectiveness of the marketing program is higher than using just the push or the pull strategies in isolation from each other.

Budgeting

The first two years will need high marketing expenditure, with the brand needing to be established in the market and with each year targeting a new segment of customers, from the trade to the consumer. This will reduce profits from the first two years, but considering the string growth in meat consumption; such expenditure is justified as shown below:

  2018 2019 2020
Units Sold (Metric Tons) 1,850 3,200 4,000
Cost/ton (USD)* 10,000 11,000 12,000
Advertising / Promotion expenditure per ton(USD) 2,500 2,500 2,200
Management Expenditure per ton(USD) 500 600 600
Total Cost/ton(USD) 13,000 14,100 14,800
Price/ton(USD) 15,000 16,000 17,000
Profit/ton(USD) 2,000 1,900 2,200
Total Profit (USD Million) 3.7 6.4 8

*Cost/Ton includes cost of logistics, transportation, taxes, packaging and other levies and duties

Conclusion

Vic’s is entering China, a very promising market for meat producers in Australia. The environment at present is very conducive to expand into this country, and hence the company is building its strategies to find the best way to enter the market and cater to Chinese customers. The company has so far firmed up its entry strategy, organizational structure and control mechanisms and marketing strategy. Now the company has to go ahead and start its China project, by working towards setting up its supply chain in China, getting the necessary clearances and licenses and recruiting the people required.

Appendix 1

International Marketing Strategic Entry Positions for a New Market

Strategic Entry Positions for a New Market
Strategic Entry Positions for a New Market

Source: Roderick E. White (1986). Generic Business Strategies, Organizational Context & Performance: An Empirical Investigation. Strategic Management Journal, Vol 7, Pp 217-231.

References

Australian Trade Commission (2010), Meat overview international marketing journal Vol 1:54

Thepigsite (2007). The story behind China’s rising pork prices.

Pugh, Wendy (2010). China to buy more Australian meat, Rabobank’s Voss

Liu, Hongbo & Deblitz, Claus (2007). Determinants of meat consumption in China. Asian Agribusiness Research Center, Working Paper 40.

Garnaut, John (2010). Getting Aussie beef into Chinese hot pots. International Marketing

Dr. Hedrick-Wong, Yuwa (2007). Understanding the affluent consumers of China. The Insight Bureau, Issue 17-July 2007.

Bernoth Ardyn, (2007), Slow roast to China.

Dess GG & DS Davis (1982). An Empirical Examination of Porter’s (1980) Generic Strategies: an Exploratory Field Study and a Panel Technique. Academy of Management Proceedings.

Porter ME (1980). International Marketing Competitive Strategy Techniques for analyzing Industries and Competitors. NY: The Free Press

Roderick E. White (1986). Generic Business Strategies, Organizational Context & Performance: An Empirical Investigation International Marketing. Strategic Management Journal, Vol 7, Pp 217-231.

Vic’s Premium Quality Meat, Company Profile (2008).

Wind Yoram, Douglas P. Susan & Perlmutter V. Howard (1973). Guidelines for developing international marketing strategies. Journal of Marketing, Vol 37 (April 1973), pp 14-23

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Deregulation of British Telecommunications

The Deregulation of British Telecommunications

Deregulation is the elimination or removal of government controls and restrictions in, for instance, a particular area of business with the aim of encouraging more competition. Deregulation in the telecommunication industry has ensured that there is a public policy that:

  1. Guarantees provision of quality service
  2. Allows for reasonable setting of prices
  3. Ensures the availability of advanced infrastructure

According to a survey done in the UK, there was an overwhelming feeling by many respondents that competition forces should determine the nature of the telecommunication industry instead of regulatory measures. Competition, ideally, spurs innovation which brings about new ideas and ways of doing things. Competition also allows prices do be determined naturally by the forces of demand and supply. The development of telecommunications market in UK has brought forth many new changes. The rise of BT (British Telecom), the first telecommunication company in UK, brought with it some issues worth to note in as far as deregulation is concerned. They include:

  1. The UK telecommunication market was the first market to benefit from deregulation measures in the 1980s. It was an area where ‘price cap regulation’ of commodities was first introduced in the UK
  2. British Telecom was the first major British telecommunications company to be deregulated and privatized in the 1980s
  3. Deregulation which brought in competition in the telecommunication industry was introduced a decade earlier when compared to many other European countries.

However, realizing meaningful competition in the telecommunication sector was a slow process for companies like British Telecom due to certain national dynamics.

Deregulation in UK

British Telecom was privatized in 1984 and it is also in this year that deregulation policies in the telecommunication industry were initiated. The 1980s saw the British government introduce a ‘duopoly policy’ in telecommunications which allowed the entrance of another market player, Mercury, into the industry. Despite this, British Telecom was still the dominant player as compared to Mercury. The UK government further allowed many other firms to enter the telecommunications industry mainly to enhance competition. Entrance of other players also meant that new innovations and infrastructure could be introduced in the industry unlike earlier when British Telecom was the only telecommunication service provider. Deregulation of the sector scrapped the price cap regulation on British Telecom which meant that the company had to depend on normal forces of demand and supply to determine the prices of their products and services.

Deregulation BT
Deregulation BT

The changes that the government was introducing in the 1980s were also aimed at making the British telecommunication industry an international standards leader. However, the industry was facing a competition crisis due to the existence of a duopoly policy in the provision of telecommunication infrastructure. The duopoly policy that mainly benefited British Telecom and Mercury was later abolished in 1991. New entrants in the provision of local access services such as Cable Television came into the market consequently increasing competition. It is from this move that major development on radio based telecommunication and mobile based systems such as PCS and radio access emerged. These new technological advancements brought about major influences in the telecommunications sector; something which had not been experienced before in the United Kingdom.

Initially, the privatization of British Telecom saw a price cap formula being introduced which meant that the company had to depend on rate rebalancing to determine prices. Further reforms in deregulation the industry have been deployed in recent years through, for instance, the announcement of the Chancellor of Exchequer, Gordon Brown, that as Better Regulation Action Plan was to be enforced as from May 2005. This new policy reduced the number of regulations from 29% to 7%, bringing about a 25% reduction in bureaucracies which also saw the Better Regulation Executive being transformed into the Regulation Commission.

Telecommunications in the UK

The duopoly policy was scrapped in 1991 following the publication of the White Paper. Earlier in 1989, further liberalization, deregulation and privatization had taken place. However, these changes were only of a domestic nature and not international per se. Until 1989, only two telecommunication services operators had been licensed, Vodafone and BT’s Cellnet. The White Paper which came into effect after duopoly policy, allowed CATV companies to start offering telecommunication services through their cable networks on their own rights. At the same time national public telecommunication companies were not permitted to offer any television services. Armstrong (1994) describes the first period of liberalization in UK telecommunication companies history as a period of opportunity loss due to ban on local service providers. The existence of only two licensed companies and very low competition were also a main feature of this period. Competition in the telecommunication market at that time was low. For example, it was until 1986, after four years of its licensed granted, that Mercury could get access to British Telecom’s local loop unbundled (LLU). Due to lack of competition, British Telecom wasn’t able to restructure itself ahead of a competition boom that was just about to hit the industry in the early 1990s. The essential developments in telecommunication companies are listed below:

  • Gradualness
  • Disambiguation
  • Regulating by negotiating
  • Expansion of the function of Regulation
  • Crimson selection
  • Rival mobile telecommunications
  • Sluggish reformation of BT

Today, competition is very high due to presence of many telecommunication companies that are periodically releasing of exciting and attractive offers to their customers. The most popular industry players among UK residents are BT Group, Virgin Media, BskyB and TalkTalk.

BT Group

British Telecom is a multinational telecommunication company whose headquarters are in London, United Kingdom. It is one of the largest telecommunication service companies in the world with presence in over 170 countries. Through its global service division, it supplies telecom services to corporate and government customers around the world. British Telecom Retail Division is a major supplier of telephone, broadband and subscription services in UK, having approximately 18 million customers. In 2012, British Telecom was unveiled as an official partner of London Olympics 2012 where it operated data network across 94 locations. The 2012 London Olympic Games were the first Olympic Games to completely rely upon VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) and Wi-Fi (Wireless) to relay information to the public.

The History of British Telecom by Years
1878-1969 January 1878: The First telephone was demonstrated to Queen VictoriaOct, 1969: The Post office ceased to be Government Department.
1969-1982 1977: CCR recommend further division of two main services1980: Renaming of the Post Office Telecommunications1981: Liberalization of the telecommunication industry starts

1982: License granted to run a public telecommunication network
1982-1991 1991: BT is privatized. The Government sold half of its remaining shares, reducing it to 21.8 %1993: All the government’s remaining shares are sold in a third flotation raises £5 billion for the Treasury. 750,000 new shareholders are introduced to company
1991-2001 1991: BT name was unveiled with a new organizational structure and corporate company
2000: Offered LLU (local loop unbundling)
2005: 105,055 lines had been unbundled
2001-2006 July, 2003: Office of Communications (Ofcom) introduced to replace Oftel.BT gets its Universal Service Obligation (USO) for UK, excluding the hull area. 
2006-present 1 April, 2009: BT Engage IT created14 May, 2009: 15,000 jobs are cut upJuly, 2009: offered workers a long holiday for an upfront sum of 25 % of their annual wedge or a one-off payment if they agree to go part time.

BT and Deregulation

Deregulation has seen British Telecom offer its consumers more pushy telephone packages. On the other hand, Ofcom has led to a decrease in pricing principles which has led to increased competition for all. Most communications companies are deregulating their retail services in the telecommunication market which is making British Telecom even more competitive. FTSE 100 group is also now offering some discounts in its packages (broadband, digital or 3G television) which include fixed-line calls for the very first time.

Ofcom has said that it had isolated the last bits of regulation after BT’s privatization 25 years. The reason raised was that it had no more market value to remain in UK telecommunications markets. Ofcom’s CEO, Ed Richards, said that it was an essential step in deregulating the telecom offers where competition is the main thing to just serve customers with better offers. Apart from BT customers, there are more than twelve million people residing in the UK who are using other telecommunication services. It is said that Virgin Media, BSkyB and TalkTalk are the most effective competitors for British Telecom.

According to estimates released recently, BT has fourteen million customers (fixed-line). Gavin Patterson, CEO of BT’s retail division, said about the new promotion that by this entire competing environment BT will be able to play the game on a better playing field as compared to previous one leading to more exciting offers. He also said that BT will announce new attractive offers in future for its valued consumers. UK residents are taking bundled offers at a large extent.

When we compared consumer’s choices by years, in 2008, UK customers have purchased two or more communication services from one service provider at the 46 % of total as compared to 2005 where 29 % did the same. This is according to Ofcom’s most recent counts. According to Ofcom, the actual competition uplift came into being when BT created Openreach in 2005. It has also provided services to BT’s competitors on equality basis. According to Kingham (2012), BT shares are one of the most popular shares with investors. BT is considered as a market leader operating in a safe and steady industry that is arguably well insulated from economic turmoil.

The following table demonstrates British Telecom’s increase in share prices in for the last ten years (Kingham, 2012). From the table, even if one can ignore the results of 2009, which was the time when most world major economies were experiencing economic downtown, it is suffice to say that, British Telecom has been experiencing a solid growth. Last year alone, despite falling sales and reduced spending by customers, British Telecom still returned a profit. The last quarter of 2012 saw an increased profit of 17% to 575 million Euros. The company also registered a quarterly decline in revenues of 5.8 billion Euros during the same period (Mike, 2012). All these can be attributed to the changes that this company has undergone in the last 20 years.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is now a fact that BT Group is constantly deregulating which makes competition out there for other telecom companies a bit harder. It is also a fact that BT is enabling UK consumers to access reliable and cheap packages choosing options.

Hutchison 3G UK is currently allowing consumers to enjoy all calls on half prices as compared to other telecom operators. A wide range of bundles available in the market have enabled the consumer to choose according to his/her needs. This not only shows prosperity in the telecommunications industry, but also increases the chances of gaining benefits global wise in every aspect whether its country’s reputation or the company’s reputation.

As this is now the trend in UK, home based and business telecommunication consumers are now able to choose bundles (one or two or so on) according to their needs. Each market player is also offering exciting and attractive packages to its consumers with lots of offers such as free subscription, no initial charges or no line rent or any charges for six months. All these are exciting offers from telecommunication companies which attract consumers.

British Telecom is the first company in the UK to introduce public sector telecommunication service which has made BT has its own stage and own reputation. Apart from few drawbacks, BT is still the best choice of its consumers due to its services provided for its valued customers. Whether in Broad Band or fixed line, BT is a good choice of UK residents.

Bibliography

Mark Armstrong, Simon Cowan and John Vickers (1994) Regulatory Deregulation Reform: Economic Analysis and British Experience, London, Chapter 7 Telecommunications, pp. 195-244.

Mike D. (July 2012). BT profits despite slowdown in sales. European Deregulation Communications.

Kingham (September 7th, 2012). 5 Things about deregulation you should know before you buy BT shares. UK Value Investor

Sylvia Chan-Olmsted and Mark Jamison (2001) .Rivalry Through Alliances: Competitive Strategy in the Global Telecommunications Market, European Management Journal, Vol 19, No. 3, pp. 317-331, 2001.

Peter Curwen (2001) .Rivalry Through Alliances: Competitive Strategy in the Global Telecommunications Market. A Rejoinder to Chan-Olmstedt and Jamison,

European Management Journal, Vol 19, No. 6, pp. 678-681, December 2001.

Peter Curwen (1997) Restructuring Telecommunications Through Deregulation Policy, A Study of Europe in a Global Context, MacMillan Press Ltd, London, Chapter 11 The UK: A Case Study, pp. 129-160.

Ernst & Young (2001) Business Redefined: Connecting Content, Applications, and Customers, Ernst & young LLP and Cap Gemini Ernst & Young Joint publication.

Federal Communications Commission (FCC) deregulation policies in the UK

Financial Times: www.ft.com deregulation policies

Arnoldo C. Hax and Dean L. Wilde II (1999) .The Delta Model: Adaptive Management for a Changing World., Sloan Management Review, 1999 40 (2), pp. 11-28.

Jean-Jacques Laffont and Jean Tirole (2000) Competition in telecommunications, Cambridge, Mass.; London: MIT Press, 2000.

David M. Newbery (1999) Privatization, Restructuring, and Deregulation of Network Utilities, The MIT Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, London, England, Chapter 7 Liberalizing Telecommunications Industry, pp. 291-340.

Michael E. Porter (1995) .Toward a dynamic theory of strategy. In Rumelt, Richard P., Schendel Dan E. and Teece David J. (Eds) Fundamental Deregulation Issues in Strategy. AResearch Agenda, Harvard University Press, pp. 423-461.

Bernard W. Wirtz (2001) Deregulation Reconfiguration of Value Chains in Converging Media and Communications Markets., Long Range Planning, 34 (2001), pp. 489-506.

OFTEL Statement, Deregulation Pricing of Telecommunications Services from 1997, June 1996, 6.54.

Principal Operating Units: BT Ignite; BT open world; BT Retail; BT Wholesale; BT exact Technologies

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Marketing Ethics

Ethical Consideration within the Retail Sector – Marketing Ethics

Many companies and businessmen often face obstacles as to what practices can ethically be done in order to make money or achieve objectives (Marketing Ethics). Fraud and deception taken up by some companies is not only wrong in the moral sense but restricts the prosperity of the economy as a whole. These practices although may not be illegal in a given geographical boundary yet it cannot be undertaken with a clear conscience.

From a customer’s view point the retailing is the first tie in the distribution chain. Hence it is essential for retailers to be ethical in business practices as they affect the lives of many people. Ethical decisions have a strong significance when it comes to ensuring order and justice in a society. However, difficulty persists as to what falls under the folds of order and justice. In the retail industry, the one department often criticized for unethical actions in business is the marketing department. This negativity can be attributed to the fact that marketing tends to represent the most noticeable department to the public at large. For instance, fabricated pricing, misleading advertisements and deceiving sales pitches from sales personnel often result in hurt or angry customers as well as the media.

Moral constraints persist in the dynamics of marketing functions. For instance, contemporary marketing experts often debate that deceitful marketing is bound to be unsuccessful as the market will shove those who disrupt the common morality. Ethics depicts a form of social control, which is especially critical to the individual customers, the salespeople and the organisation itself. Marketing ethics gives birth to a more socially responsible and culturally penetrating business community. The adherence to marketing ethics has the prospective of being favorable to the society as a whole in the short as well as the long run term; therefore it should be a substantial part of any business model.

There is a pressing concern towards ethical issues, such as poor working conditions, child labor, associations with third world countries, green issues, grey imports and environmental concerns which have led to a change in attitude of the western world to consider a more socially responsible approach. The societal marketing concept stresses the need for organizations to achieve a balance between satisfying customers, achieving profits and maintain the well-being of the society; when making marketing decisions. An organization can play a role in creating a positive impact on the society if it produces useful products in an environmental friendly manner.

Marketing Ethics
Marketing Ethics

Over the years, organizations have evolved and realized their social responsibilities. Organizational social commitment consists of four kinds of responsibilities: legal, economic, philanthropic and ethical. These four classifications have been in existence for decades; however, in recent years social and ethical dimensions have attained increasing importance. Firms come into being to provide goods and services with an aim to maximize profits. In their efforts to attain maximum profits they often forget their responsibilities towards the society. Consumers these days place pressing importance on the need to protect the environment and hence this has put pressure on companies to realize their responsibilities and act in the favor of the society as well satisfying the customers and looking after the well-being of the society in which they operate.

Ethical Considerations

Green issues

Every business has a two-way relationship with the society. While the business contributes to the society in the form of products and services, the society provides an environment for the businesses to flourish and grown in. Since, the survival of a business depends upon the society, businesses need to perform in a manner that does not harm the environment but is useful to it. For example, companies need to be conscious of the environment they operate in and thoughtful about issues such as ozone layer depletion and global warming. Until recently, cfc (chlorofloro-carbon) which leads to the damaging of the ozone layer was used in the manufacturing of refrigerator compressors in most countries. However, today many companies have adopted various alternatives to cfc and banned its use from production processes. Companies should also take notice of fair practices when it comes to employment such as providing equal employment opportunities to everyone and a safe and fit work environment along with fair compensation packages.

Sourcing of products

Companies operating with global supply chains came under immense pressure by the consumer groups, trade union and the government in the 1990’s to ensure healthy working conditions for those producing their goods in the less developed countries. Various media campaigns have been carried out which shed light on the poor working environment in factories in the less developing countries emphasizing the need for marketing ethics and trading.

This has resulted in the growing importance of marketing ethics in the corporate responsibility agenda of major corporations. Many companies today have established social and environmental criteria for the selection of their business ventures; which includes securing appropriate standards for the labor conditions and work environment in their supply chain. Also, corporate codes of practice are being implemented so as to their ventures according to a range of social and environmental criteria, including an organisation’s efforts to secure adequate labor conditions in their supply chain, and retailers are increasingly implementing corporate codes of practice so as to certify that the working conditions of the labor involved in the production of their goods meet or exceed international labor standards.

For example, Primark’s rating fell in the consumer polls drastically in 2008 after it was discovered that a few of Primark’ suppliers were using child labor. On the other hand, Marks & Spencer had a high rating in consumer polls due to their –‘plan A’ initiative, which comprised of performing life-cycle assessment on their clothing and  included carrying out life-cycle assessments on their clothing and developing a clothes recycling arrangement with Oxfam. Primark changing its suppliers and creating a website for the promotion of marketing ethics and its ethical trading records as a comeback for the child labor allegations highlights the significance of showing customers that you are sourcing responsibly.

Product Safety

Every day, a variety of new goods are produced and sold in different geographical boundaries and on virtual markets i.e. online. Increased trading and more refined designs can make it challenging to determine the products consumer purchases are safe for them or not. Product safety is an ethical obligation for every company in the retail business as they have a responsibility to provide consumers with products of value that they pay for and that are safe for use.

An example can be taken of the Yamaha group; it ensures that products and services are not harmful in any way to the consumer’s well-being. If an issue of the sort arises it is immediately dealt with and steps are taken to compensate and prevent the recurrence. In the contemporary retail industry online trading has reached its apex. However, new online products could often be unsafe and cause serious injuries or death if they fail to meet safety standards. Consumers cannot assess the products safety, toughness and inspect labels as the goods are not physically available when purchasing online. Second-hand products available online could also be unsafe as they may fail to meet the desired standards, have damaged or missing parts vital for safe operation, may not be sold with a manual for safe use and assembly instructions or may have been modified by the prior owner causing it to be unsafe.

Grey Imports

Products that are sold through non-authorized channels are known as “grey or parallel imports’. These grey imports may appear to be cheap on surface, yet they may be far from cheap when it comes to compliance issues being addressed. They raise financial as well as safety concerns for the purchasers. As these products are not imported with the consent of the manufacturer they do not fall under the manufacturer’s warranty.

Also since these non-authorized products may not pass through regular safety checks that authorized products do they could have potential harmful impact on oneself and one’s family. Moreover, no after sales support is provided as dealer and brokers are not allowed to provide service and spare parts to grey imports which mean maintenance cannot be done by specialized professionals. Grey or parallel imports often have little or no value when reselling as compared to authorized products.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

The concept of corporate social responsibility is very often linked with the concept of business ethics. Therefore, the main aim of many retailers’ ethics is focused upon the role ethical responsibility plays in order to contribute to the sustainable economic development; healthy work environment for employees, safe society for individuals, the local community and society at large to improve their quality of life. Marketing and marketers play an imperative part in the growth of corporate strategy and respond to the corporate social responsibility agenda.

Business organizations make use of scarce resources in order to produce goods and services to satisfy the customers. To carry out these activities companies need to be cost effective, innovative productive in operations. In order to become successful companies should portray sensitivity to the expectations of the customers when it comes to social issues and environmental well-being (Kotler, 2003). In order to be operating in a socially responsible manner organizations should be concerned for the people and the environment in which the business activity takes place. It is expected that firms that are socially responsible will outperform those less responsible financially in the long run. This can be as a result of customer loyalty and trust, better employee morale or public policies in favor of ethical conduct and overall marketing ethics.

According to an article by Lichtenstein and et al., theory and recent evidence indicated by researchers suggests that a corporation that is socially responsible can have a relatively positive effect on customer attitudes towards the particular corporation (Lichtenstein and et al, 2004). International companies take initiative by donating millions of dollars to non-profit organizations in the form of philanthropy, cause related marketing, employee voluntarism and various novel marketing programs. An example can be of Avon, cosmetic company which raised $200 million for education regarding breast cancer and early diagnosis services through breast cancer awareness crusade.

Consumer’s Perception

Consumers are in need of ways to attain information about the products and services they purchase without having the expertise to judge. The fact that consumers are not well-informed anymore and neither are they self-sufficient; both have a significant impact on the the importance of business ethics when dealing with consumers. Firstly, there was a time when customers could analyze and judge on their own whether the quality of a product or service was up to mark. However, now products and services are created by experts with specialized skills. This results in difficulty to judge the quality by a layman, hence companies need to be honest with the consumers and tell them if the product is of acceptable quality standards and performs the functions they need it for. Secondly, people were self-sufficient previously and could produce what they needed to in order to survive on their own. This situation has changed as people have become progressively dependent on goods that have been created by experts, machinery and high quality resources. As a result the customer has little choice but to accept the product as an honest one and trust the organization’s intentions. Hence, this makes it essential for the companies to look out for what falls under the best interest of their customers.

Other Socially Responsible Clothing Retailers

Marks and Spencer is a British retailer which specializes in clothing items and luxury food products. In 2007, this retailing giant announced a five-year plan which made serious vows and commitments to becoming “a carbon neutral, zero-waste-to-landfill, ethical-trading, sustainable-sourcing, health-promoting business.” ASOS is the second largest online retailer in the world, and its brand under the name of green room acts as a podium devoted to collections with an ethical or eco-conscious story to tell. Offering a range of organic recycled and fair trade clothing, accessories, footwear and beauty, ASOS green room makes it easy to shop more responsibly without the sharp price tag. As of 2012, H&M has raised over $4.5 million USD, through a 5 year partner program with UN charity organization UNICEF. Starting in February 2013, H&M will offer patrons a voucher in exchange for used garments. Donated garments will be processed by I:CO, a retailer that recycles used clothing with the goal of creating a zero-waste economy. The initiative is similar to a clothes-collection voucher program launched in April 2012 by Marks & Spencer in partnership with Oxfam.

Marketing Ethics Conclusion

Companies have a moral obligation towards their consumers or potential customers. They must not be deceitful and sell products that are safe for the users. However, it is not entirely clear as to what is morally preferable and where does the advertising cross the overly deceptive boundary and the extent of harm that manipulative advertising can do to people. Hence, it is better to be on the safe side and take extra precautions where the well-being of human life is concerned.

The responsibilities of a business are further illustrated in the steps that should be taken by manufacturers in order to ensure that goods of acceptable safety standards are provided to customers. Firstly business should give priority to safety. If costs are being raised in order to meet safety requirements that does not mean they should dismiss it. Products that may lead to serious injuries are often are often the ones that need the highest safety standards.

Secondly, businesses should take responsibility of any accidents caused by the product rather than blame it on product misuse. Consumers should be made aware about the proper usage of products that have a tendency to be harmful. Some consumers can still be harmed if they use products appropriately. Also, if products are continuously being misused there should be ways to make the misusing of it less harmful to the user.

Thirdly, business must monitor and check the manufacturing process on its own. Often products produced are defected as a result of mismanagement in the manufacturing process. Companies must keep a check on its activities and have a quality control team to ensure that safe and non-defected products pass through to the consumers. Sometimes external quality assessment teams or companies can be hired for an unbiased testing process.

Fourthly, when a product is prepared to be marketed, companies should have a product safety staff in-line to assess the market strategy and advertising for potential safety problem. How a product is being used in an advertisement can have a significant impact in encouraging people to use the product that way. Hence, advertisers should refrain from portraying the usage of product in a harmful manner such as showing people driving cars while texting at the same time.

Fifthly, when a product lands in the marketplace, firms should make sure that written information about the products performance is readily available to the consumers. In order to ensure the product is used in the proper manner and not misused information should be explained in detail about its proper use and made public. Warning labels are found on many products as a result of this. Lastly, companies should investigate and respond to consumer complaints. Consumers being the users can provide a good source of product safety testing and complaints can help the company determine where it lacks and what safety standards the product may lack.

In conclusion, it can be determined that the contemporary retail industry has evolved over the past decade. Previously little importance was given to matters of environmental well-being; the main objective being to maximize profits no matter what the impact it had on one’s surroundings. However, the situation is more subtle now with the consumer becoming more conscious of the environment and sensitive towards its sustainability. Retail businesses have realized the need to be socially responsible in order to gain the consumers trust, loyalty and to satisfy the market. It may incur a cost yet the outcome is far reaching for the overall growth and sustainability of not only the business but the society as a whole.

References

Gundlach, G.T. and Murphy, P.E. (1993), “Ethical and legal foundations of relational marketing ethics exchanges”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 57 No. 4, pp. 35-46.

Kotler, P. 2003. A Framework for Marketing Ethics Management. (11th Ed). Pearson Custom Publishing.

Lichtenstein, Donald R., Minette E. Drumwright, and Bridgette M. Braig. 2004. “The Effect of Corporate Social Responsibility on Customer Donations to Corporate-Supported Nonprofits.”Journal of Marketing 68 (October): 16-33.

Murphy, P.E., Laczniak, G.R., Bowie, N.E. and Klein, T.A. (2005), Marketing Ethics, Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Nantel, J. and Weeks, W.A. (1996), “Marketing Ethics is there more to it than the utilitarian approach?” European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 30 No. 5, pp. 9-19.

Urban, G.L. (2005a), “Customer advocacy: a new era in marketing?”, Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, Vol. 24, Spring, pp. 155-9.

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Organizational Change Management

Organizational Change Management

The purpose of this report is to analyse the case study on D2 which is an auto-components manufacturer undergoing major structural changes to minimize costs and implement innovation and technology. While managing the change, the organisation had to face different kinds of issues. Thus, the report would be identifying the issues and proposing relevant solutions and their implementation to manage change effectively, by using the 5D-Framework which comprises of definition, discovery, dream, design and destiny.

Definition

When a company undergoes change, there are a series of opportunities and challenges that it has to face. Change is not a onetime occurrence but rather could take years to be implemented. When an organisation is undergoing strategic change, it needs to re-formulate its mission and strategies and thereafter align all its business operations with the overall strategy (Cummings and Vorley, 2009). While managing strategic change, implementation is more challenging than just designing the change.

Lack of Communication Alignment

Therefore, one of the primary issues witnessed in the D2 case was that the management would have difficulty in implementing the change due to improper communication channel used for communicating the strategy to the rest of the employees. Apart from this, having a balanced strategic change is also a significant challenge since in order to achieve the balance, the organisation needs to assure that its internal management and resources are aligned with each other and with the external opportunities (Bordum, 2010).

Environmental Pressures

Apart from this, environmental pressures are another reason why organisations undergo change. In order to be aligned with the environment, there is a certain organisational structure and a strategic positioning required. One of the key issues in the case was that there has been an outpaced growth of technology over the years and in order to meet that pace it needed to undergo significant innovation and get rid of the obsolete technology. This required greater strategic flexibility which then bore a cost to the organisation since the employees resisted the change and job insecurity arose (Skordoulis, 2013). Moreover, owing to the environmental pressures, it was significantly cutting costs and thus, had to face a trade-off between lowering costs and smooth flow of work. The smooth flow of work would be disrupted since to lower costs, it would have to shut down some of its manufacturing facilities that are not producing enough and would have to redeploy staff to other geographic regions which would require a lot of planning and control. According to Alessa and Kliskey (2012), responses to environmental change management is required which can be done through change agents. These agents can be of three types: the initiators, the supporters and the opportunists. These environmental change agents would assure that the company’s strategy is in correspondence with the changes in the external environment. In the case of D2, the changes in technology were an environmental pressure which required a change agent to manage it effectively and efficiently.

Leadership Issues and Resistance to Change Management

Change management can be of many types, varying from a change in structure to a change in culture, leadership style, operations, systems and strategy. At times one change may lead to another change and while doing so, organisations encounter a number of issues. Another key issue evident in the case was the autocratic leadership style and a centralized management as a result. In identifying the change management areas, the management itself first made decisions and formulated the strategy, and then later informed the employees. As the case stated that the decision was yet to be announced and the workers in UK might be shock to hear it since the firm had made heavy investments in the manufacturing plants. Moreover, while redeploying the employees from one geographic region to another, cultural issues might also be faced which would require heavy investments in training. Thus, a greater resistance might be expected from the employees since they were not part of the decision making process and the organisation’s interests might then be in conflict with the interest of the employees (Banutu and Shandra, 2007).

Trade-off between managing change management and maintaining core competency

Lastly, and most importantly, since the company’s operations are dispersed geographically and one of its core competencies is the pace and quality of its product development, in change management , the company might lose out its current strategic position or the core competency it has, thus, assuring that the pace and quality product development remains the same while re-structuring its manufacturing operations, would be very challenging for the company. Furthermore, change management is not following a planned approach. This might cause D2 to lose out its competitive position in the market which would then be difficult to re-obtain since by focusing on cost reduction rather than value addition, maintaining the sustainability of operations is less likely to happen.

Leadership Issues and Employee Resistance to Change

Discovery

The underlying problem chosen for in-depth discussion is the employee resistance to change and the leadership issues in bringing about the change. As stated in the case, D2 required an urgent need for change management therefore it cannot go slow in bringing about the change and would require major transformations in its structure and human resource. While deciding which operations to shut down and which ones to expand, it has been taking into account the external environment and the returns it would get out of it. However, in doing so, it has neglected the reaction that might be expected from the employees, and which could majorly impact and hinder any change management process that happens in the organisation. Resistance to change usually occurs when employee needs are not addressed; their goals and organisational goals are not aligned; there is communication gap between the different hierarchical levels as well as in horizontal communication; when there is downsizing and mistrust is created among employees; when there are major cultural issues to be faced as a result of change management ; and when employee participation in decision making is lacking (Bovey and Hede, 2001).

5D-Cycle Organizational Change Management
5D-Cycle Organizational Change Management

Furthermore, when the leader fails to apply a transformational leadership style where he articulates the vision and re-defines the strategy, the resistance increases further as employees are unclear about the goals and objectives they need to achieve as individuals as well as collectively (Eisenbach et al., 1999). The management needs to keep a balance between the organisational needs and the human needs since ultimately it is the human resource that needs to implement the change (Griffin and Moorhead, 2011). The key issue in the case of D2 was that a feeling of mistrust and insecurity was occurring not only in the U.K. region where it plans to close its facilities but also among the employees working in other subsidiaries located in Spain since the change management process is not communicated effectively and the decision making authority is vested in the hands of a few senior managers indicating that bureaucratic leadership style is more evident in the organisation which means that the increased level of formality between the management and the employees and the lack of communication would result in a decrease in employee morale, and hence, a decline in performance.

In order to address the issues, the leadership styles need to be changed. According to Bamford and Forrester (2003), using a middle-out approach would be of significant advantage in addressing the issue. This would involve giving the middle management the authority to lead the change under the supervision of the top management. In doing so, employee needs would be addressed in a better form since the line managers are more closely linked with the operational level staff and thus would be able to provide adequate feedback to the top management of how to create a link between the overall strategy and the needs addressed. Greater teamwork and participation of the workers would also be required to increase their motivational level and making the flow of communication more efficient. Leadership issues are also one of the reasons why organisations fail in managing the change. Uncertainty often accompanies change and as a leader, one needs to minimize the uncertainty levels and create an environment of greater employee commitment and trust. According to Ahn et al. (2004), globalization and change of technology at an accelerating pace requires that effectiveness in leadership has become immensely important, which is demonstrated through the leader’s adaptability to different management styles that involve greater coordination and engagement among all members of the organisation. According to Ashman (2012), ‘redundancies have become an unwelcome necessity across all sectors of the economy’, and while strategy and procedure in change management are important, the third element, psychology, is not given much attention which focuses on how employee emotions need to be dealt with to prevent any resistance to change management. Thus, this requires that to avoid such issues the message is communicated accurately while the sensitivity of such messages is taken into account adequately (Ashman, 2012).

Dream

One of the ways in managing the issues is to adopt a planned change management approach. The 3 step model of Lewin is applicable here which suggests that the organisation needs to plan change management in three stages: unfreezing, moving, and re-freezing (Burnes, 2013). In the case of D2, a sense of urgency was created and the change was seen more as an emergent one rather than a planned one. However, to make the change more sustainable, carrying out the planned approach would decrease employee resistance, since the unfreezing stage would first help in abandoning the old ways of doing work and preparing the employees for change. For instance, D2 could have addressed the issue of mistrust among its employees in other regions as well as in U.K. by defining the need for change and how it would benefit the organisation as a whole. It should then also point out the alternative employment opportunities available and how these would be a better platform for their growth. The moving stage then would involve applying the change process such as re-structuring, changing leadership styles, re-articulating the vision or changing the strategic position. This is when D2 should start shutting down its facilities and redeploying the staff where expansion is happening. The moving stage would then be followed by the re-freezing stage where the new practices would be adopted in a more permanent basis by providing training and aligning the new behaviors with the organisational strategy and culture (Bamford and Forrester, 2003).

Another potential solution of managing organisational change would be to conduct training programs and adopt situational leadership style. The situational leadership theory states that there is no one best style of management and the leader would have to either adopt a relationship-oriented style or a task-oriented style depending on the situation being faced (Griffin and Moorhead, 2011). Similarly, motivational levels of employees would also have to be taken into account and the purpose of the chosen leadership style would be to boost employee morale and assure that they have a positive attitude towards the change.

Also team building should be the ultimate focus of the organisation. This should involve self-managing teams, cross-regional/cross-cultural teams and cross-functional teams (Sisaye, 2005). The purpose of having such teams would mean greater diversity and flexibility among employees as well as greater coordination between different divisions and manufacturing facilities. By having cross-cultural teams, the employees would be more familiar with the cultural differences between Spain, France and U.K., thus, any issues arising as a result of change in culture could be better handled through cross-functional teams. The team performance model suggests that in order to create a team there needs to be orientation, trust building, goal clarification and commitment; and in order to sustain that team there needs to be implementation, high performance and renewal (Cooperrider and Dan Whitney, 2001).Therefore, the employees and the management should get involved in formulating the teams before the change management process and since this change is more about implementing new technology while cutting down the costs, the teams may focus on how the technology can be implemented. This would also be accompanied with extensive training to avoid any ambiguity among the employees.

The firm’s strategy of achieving cost leadership while maintaining the pace and quality of product development requires that it should, it focuses on value addition. This would mean cutting down costs by minimizing any wastage of resources and streamlining processes. At the same time, it would also be adding value through the innovative tools and technology used. This strategy would have to be defined by the leader after taking employee opinion and feedback using the bottom-up approach and would then have to be implemented across the organisation.

Design

In order to implement the proposed solutions, careful planning and formulation would be required. The use the planned change model can be implemented by having a leader who first identifies the potential areas that require change in terms of employee attitude and behavior Also, while addressing the need for change, the leaders should first conduct a field force analysis to identify the factors that are for and against the change (Schwering, 2003). The leader could then use the forces that can help in driving change as an advantage. This would include the consumer demand for more innovative auto components, availability of technology, upgraded technology in the other two manufacturing facilities and the identification of a new strategy. The drivers against change management would include employee resistance due to increased mistrust, decrease in morale in case of deployment and fear of exploring the new methods of working. Thus, once the forces are identified, in order to overcome any barriers, training programs should be conducted throughout the change process, that is, the unfreezing, moving and re-freezing stage. These training programs should involve two way communications which would mean delivering the new company strategy to the employees and also taking their feedback on what concerns they have and how they think it can be improved further (Hoag et al., 2002).

Apart from this, in helping leaders being aware of different leadership styles, leadership workshops should also be conducted. These might include assessment centres and activities where the management can be given different scenarios and asked to adopt an appropriate leadership style (Cummings and Vorley, 2009). The workshops would then be concluded with feedback and suggestions. Also while change management is being implemented, the performance should be monitored and measured more frequently in order to understand employee behavior and their progress. In case of teamwork as well, the leader would have to assure that there is no group think that could result in in-group conflicts, and the goals of the team are aligned with that of the organisation (Raza and Standing, 2011). The management would have to be more decentralized in its approach by practicing open door policies and being on the floor to address employee needs. The alternative employment opportunities available for the employees need to be clearly identified before the change process in order to conduct the implementation smoothly. Similarly, while communicating the new strategy to the employees, the opportunities available to them should be delivered first, which could act as a buffer to the disappointment they might have on hearing the shutting down of operations.

In order to cut down costs while maintaining the core competency, the organisation should align its operations with the new strategy. This would mean implementing change management simultaneously. The firm should first start expanding its operations in France by investing in new technology and setting up the production design, it should then plan out staffing requirements and communicate the strategy to the employees in the U.K. as well as Spain regarding how the expansion could help organisation grow and how the operations in U.K. might decline the overall progress of the organisation. Online video conferencing or virtual teams can also be formed where there could be cross-regional communication to assure that all its units are at the same pace and the goals of the organisation are communicated clearly across. Also by using internet as a platform for communication, organisation would be further saving on its time and costs in coordinating the teams.

Destiny

In implementing the proposed solutions, the possible limitations that might be faced include the heavy investment costs associated with training. This would conflict with the overall strategy of the firm of cutting down the costs. Therefore, in order to minimize the training costs, the management can focus on more informal ways of training such as in-house training where the costs of additional trainers and location can be saved. Similarly, the organisation could identify change agents who are trained and competent enough before the change takes place and then these agents could help other employees in carrying out the change (Griffin and Moorhead, 2011).

Furthermore, in identifying leadership styles, one of the factors that have been ignored is the number of cultural issues. For example, the effectiveness of relationship-oriented style is not only dependent upon the organisational situation but also on the culture where it is operational. There might be differences in terms of collectivism and individualism, and power distances (Kirsch et al., 2012). To overcome this limitation, the leader can identify the similarities in culture that can help employees adjust in the other two regions and make them aware of the differences to avoid any cultural shock.

While implementing the solutions, another possible limitation is the effectiveness of the feedback. Employees might be reluctant to speak up any negative feelings regarding the process or the feedback might be unstructured and more intuitive rather than formulized. To overcome this limitation, the management can take anonymous written feedbacks and then re-evaluate performance after the feedback is taken into account, in order to measure its effectiveness.

Thus, by strategizing the change process and aligning the structure, the culture and the processes with the overall strategy, implementing the change process would be more effective, reducing any potential resistance of the employees through greater involvement and empowerment in decision-making. Also by applying the three-step planned approach to change, the employee attitudes would be more positive towards change, removing any ambiguities that might exist regarding the strategic change.

References

Ahn, M.J., Adamson, J.S.A. and Dornbusch, D., 2004. From Leaders to Leadership: Change Management. Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, 10(4), pp. 112-123.

Alessa, L. and Kliskey, A., 2012. The Role of Agent Types in Detecting and Responding to Environmental Change Management. Human organisation, 71(1), pp. 1-10.

Ashman, I., 2012. A New Role Emerges in Downsizing: Special Envoy. People Management and Change Management, pp. 32-35.

Bamford, D.R. and Forrester, P.L., 2003. Managing planned and emergent change within an operations management environment. International Journal of Operations and Production Change Management, 23(5), pp. 546-546.

Banutu, M.B. and Shandra, M.T.B., 2007. Leadership and Organisational Change Management in a Competitive Environment. Business Renaissance Quarterly, 2(2), pp. 69-90.

Bordum, A., 2010. The strategic balance in a change management perspective. Society and Business Review, 5(3), pp. 245-258.

Bovey, W.H. and Hede, A., 2001. Resistance to Organisational Change Management: The role of cognitive and affective processes. Leadership and Organisation Development Journal, 22(7), pp. 372-382.

Burnes, B., 2013. Kurt Lewin and the Planned Approach to Change: A Re-appraisal. Journal of Change Management Studies, 53(8), pp. 111-134.

Cooperrider, D.L. and dan Whitney D., 2001. Change Management A positive revolution in change: appreciative inquiry, on Robert T. Golembiewski (ed.), The handbook of organisational behavior.2nd ed., New York: Marcel Decker.

Cummings, T.G. and Vorley, C.G., 2009. Organisation Development and Change Management. 9th ed. Mason: Cengage Learning.

Eisenbach, R. et al., 1999. Transformational leadership in the context of organisational change.Journal of Organisational Change Management, 12(2), pp. 80-88.

Griffin, R.W. and Moorhead, G., 2011. Organisational Behavior: Managing People, Change Management and Organisations. Mason: Cengage Learning.

Hoag, B.G., Ritschard, H.V. and Cooper, C.L., 2002. Obstacles to effective organisational change: The underlying reasons. Leadership and Organisation Development Journal, 23(1), pp. 6-15.

Kirsch, C., Chelliah, J. and Parry, W., 2012. The impact of cross-cultural dynamics on change management. Cross Cultural Management, 19(2), pp. 166-195.

Raza, S.A. and Standing, C., 2011. A Systemic Model for Managing and Evaluating Conflicts in Organisational Management Change. Systemic Practice and Action Research, 24(3), pp. 187-210.

Schwering, R.E., 2003. Focusing leadership through force field analysis: new variations on a venerable planning tool. Leadership and Organisation Development Journal, 24(7), pp. 361-370.

Sisaye, S., 2005. Management control systems and organisational development: New directions for managing work teams – Change Management. Leadership and Organisation Development Journal, 26(1), pp. 51-61.

Skordoulis, R.T., 2013. Strategic flexibility and change: an aid to strategic thinking or another managerial abstraction? Strategic Change Management, 13(5), pp. 253-258.

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Multi-Asset Portfolio Dissertation

How The Role Of Property In A Multi-Asset Portfolio Has Been Affected By The Credit Crunch

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The existing literature argues property’s role in a multi-asset portfolio to be a means of risk reduction opposed to a method of returns. However, with the recent credit crunch having an adverse effect on the property market, this study will look into the affect it has had upon property’s role. To reach this finding, a combination of primary and secondary data will be used.

The secondary data was obtained through a literature review and the primary data from interviews and a questionnaire. The findings were that the credit crunch has left the UK property in a position where it can offer investors opportunity to make capital gains and a secure income through rents. This has led to property’s role now being mainly focused on returns but still included as a means of risk reduction.

Multi-Asset Portfolio Dissertation
Multi-Asset Portfolio Dissertation

In a multi-asset portfolio an investor will likely include property to diversify and better their overall returns. However, with property values falling, it is likely investors were wishing to pull out of this asset class, cut their losses and venture elsewhere due to their risk adverse attitudes. A negative correlation when comparing property with stocks and bonds makes the later pair appears the way forward. Reason being; they should theoretically be outperforming the current property market rectifying diversification in a multi-asset portfolio.

If investors make this decision and reduce the amount of real estate, levels of diversification will decrease, increasing specific risk. The chance of disposing their property is extremely slim however because of property’s liquidity being further extenuated by a market downturn. Property is evidently not offering the attributes investors’ want, yet they are unable to dispose of this unwanted asset. This puts investors in a very difficult situation of being left with a depreciating asset in their multi-asset portfolio.

A possible solution to this would be identifying potential emerging markets, such as Latin America and India, which may offer the desired benefits currently unattainable in the UK. So with property still existing among UK fund managers’ portfolios the role it now offers must be determined. This dissertation will be based on three key assumptions namely:

  • Investors’ main reason for including property in a multi-asset portfolio is to reduce risk
  • Due to the poor performance of property in recent years, investors are reducing the property exposure in a portfolio and replacing it with more traditional methods such as bonds
  • Even with the recession being a global problem, certain investors feel there are still benefits from international property investment

The opening chapter of this dissertation has been produced to give readers an understanding of the overall study and what the upcoming chapters will be exploring. Chapter two will be a literature review analysing applicable company publications and academic literature, relating to the use of property within a multi-asset portfolio. It will clarify why various investors wish to include property, its characteristics, alternative assets to invest in and overseas investment.

Each of these points will be tackled in their own independent section. The following chapter (three) will exhibit clearly the use of methodologies used throughout the dissertation to find out how the actions of investors has changed towards property during the credit crunch. Within the chapter it will also justify why these research methods were best suited for this field of research. The fourth chapter will bring together the results from the literature review, interviews and online questionnaire, clearly explaining what has been identified.

The final chapter of the dissertation shall be the conclusion. It will summarise the key findings answering the aims and objectives outlined at the start of the paper, identifying how the role of property within a multi-asset portfolio has been affected by the credit crunch. It will also make clear the limitations of the study and recommendations for similar studies in the future.

This research will help support many other studies that have been carried out over the years in regard to property’s role within a multi-asset portfolios. This paper will differ to previous studies, carried out by the like of Bryne and Lee, as it is primarily focusing on an economic downturn opposed to data over long periods with varying market conditions. There is a distinct lack of existing literature on this matter. By shedding light on this aspect, it will give an investor’s insight on how property is best used in a multi-asset portfolio during a struggling market.

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